  The Linux Cyrillic HOWTO
  Alexander L. Belikoff, (abel@bfr.co.il)
  v3.0, 13 August 1997

  This document describes how to set up your Linux box to typeset, view
  and print the documents in the Russian language.

  1.  General notes

  1.1.  Introduction

  This document covers the things you need to successfully typeset,
  view, and print documents in Russian under Linux. Although this
  document assumes your using Linux as an operating system, most of
  information presented is equally applicable to many other Unix
  flavors. I shall try to keep the distinction as visible as possible.

  There are a number of popular Linux distributions. As an example
  system I describe the RedHat 3.0.3 Linux (Picasso) and the RedHat 4.1
  Linux (Vanderbildt) - the one I am personally using. Nevertheless, I
  shall try to highlight the differences, if they exist, in the
  Slackware Linux setup.

  Since such setup directly modifies and extends the Operating System,
  you should understand, what you are doing. Even though I tried to keep
  things as easy as possible, having some experience with a given piece
  of software is an advantage. I am not going to describe what the X
  Window System is or how to typeset the documents with TeX and LaTeX,
  or how to install printer in Linux. Those issues are covered in other
  documents.

  For the same reason, in most cases I describe a system-wide setup, by
  default requiring root privileges. Still, if there is a possibility
  for user-level setup, I'll try to mention it.

  NOTE: The X Window System, TeX and other Linux components are complex
  systems with a sofisticated configuration. If you do something wrong,
  you can not only fail with Russian setup, but to break the component
  as well, if not the entire system. This is not to scare you off, but
  merely to make you understand the seriousness of the process and be
  careful. Preliminary backup of the config files is highly recommended.
  Having a guru around is also advantageous.

  1.2.  Availability and feedback

  This document is available at sunsite.unc.edu or tsx-11.mit.edu as a
  part of the Linux Document Project. Also, it may be available at
  various FTP sites containing Linux. Moreover, it may be included as a
  part of Linux distribution.

  You may also get it directly from the author at ftp.netvision.net.il.

  If you have any suggestions or corrections regarding this document,
  please, don't hesitate to contact me as belikoff@netvision.net.il. Any
  new and useful information about Cyrillic support in various Unices is
  highly appreciated. Remember, it will help the others.

  1.3.  Acknowledgments and copyrights

  Many people helped me (and not only me) with valuable information and
  suggestions. Even more people contributed software to the public
  community. I am sorry if I forgot to mention somebody.

  So, here they go:

    Bas V. de Bakker

    David Daves

    Serge Vakulenko

    Sergei O. Naoumov

    Winfried Truemper

    Ilya K. Orehov

    Michael Van Canneyt

  This document is Copyright (C) 1995,1997 by Alexander L. Belikoff. It
  may be used and distributed under the usual Linux HOWTO terms
  described below.

  The following is a Linux HOWTO copyright notice:

       Unless otherwise stated, Linux HOWTO documents are copy
       righted by their respective authors. Linux HOWTO documents
       may be reproduced and distributed in whole or in part, in
       any medium physical or electronic, as long as this copyright
       notice is retained on all copies. Commercial redistribution
       is allowed and encouraged; however, the author would like to
       be notified of any such distributions.

       All translations, derivative works, or aggregate works
       incorporating any Linux HOWTO documents must be covered
       under this copyright notice.  That is, you may not produce a
       derivative work from a HOWTO and impose additional restric
       tions on its distribution. Exceptions to these rules may be
       granted under certain conditions; please contact the Linux
       HOWTO coordinator at the address given below.

       In short, we wish to promote dissemination of this informa
       tion through as many channels as possible. However, we do
       wish to retain copyright on the HOWTO documents, and would
       like to be notified of any plans to redistribute the HOWTOs.

  If you have questions, please contact Greg Hankins, the Linux HOWTO
  coordinator, at gregh@sunsite.unc.edu. You may finger this address for
  phone number and additional contact information.

  Unix is a technology trademark of the X/Open Ltd.; MS-DOS, Windows,
  Windows 95, and Windows NT are trademarks of the Microsoft Corp.; The
  X Window System is a trademark of The X Consortium Inc. Other
  trademarks belong to the appropriate holders.

  2.  Characters and codesets

  In order to understand and print characters of various languages, the
  system and software should be able to distinguish them from other
  characters. That is, each unique character must have a unique
  representation inside the operating system, or the particular software
  package. Such collection of all unique characters, that the system is
  able to represent at once, is called a codeset.

  At the time of the most operating system's creation, nobody cared
  about software being multilingual. Therefore, the most popular codeset
  was (and actually is) an ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
  Interchange).

  The standard ASCII (aka 7-bit ASCII) comprises 128 unique codes. Some
  of them ASCII defines as real printable characters, and some are so-
  called control characters, which had special meanings in the old
  communication protocols. Each element of the set is identified by an
  integer character code (0-127). The subset of printable characters
  represents those found on the typewriter's keyboard with some minor
  additions. Each character occupies 7 least significant bits of a byte,
  whereas the most significant one was used for control purposes (say,
  transmission control in old communication packages).

  The 7-bit ASCII concept was extended by 8-bit ASCII (aka extended
  ASCII). In this codeset, the characters' codes' range is 0-255. The
  lower half (0-127) is pure ASCII, whereas the upper one contains 127
  more characters. Since this codeset is backward compatible with the
  ASCII (character still occupies 8 bit, the codes correspond the old
  ASCII), this codeset gained wide popularity.

  The 8-bit ASCII doesn't define the contents of the upper half of the
  codeset. Therefore the ISO organization took the responsibility of
  defining a family of standards known as ISO 8859-X family. It is a
  collection of 8-bit codesets, where the lower half of each codeset
  (characters with codes 0-127) matches the ASCII and the upper parts
  define characters for various languages. For example, the following
  codesets are defined:

    8859-1 - Europe, Latin America (also known as Latin 1)

    8859-2 - Eastern Europe

    8859-5 - Cyrillic

    8859-8 - Hebrew

  In Latin 1, the upper half of the table defines various characters
  which are not part of the English alphabet, but are present in various
  european languages (german umlauts, french accentes etc).

  Another popular extended ASCII implementation is so-called IBM
  codepage (named after some computer company, that developed this
  codeset for it's infamous personal computers). This one contains
  pseudo-graphic characters in the upper half.

  Software, that doesn't make any assumptions about the 8-th bit of the
  ASCII data is called 8-bit clean. Some older programs, designed with
  7-bit ASCII in mind are not 8-bit clean and may work incorrectly with
  your extended ASCII data. Most of packages, however, are able to deal
  with the extended ASCII by default, or require some very basic setup.
  NOTE: before posting the question "I did all setup right, but I cannot
  enter/view Cyrillic characters!", please consult the section ``'' for
  the notes on the program, you are using.
  For information about making your software 8-bit clean, see section
  ``''.

  Since on most systems character occupies 8 bits, there is no way to
  extend ASCII more and more. The way to implement new symbols in ASCII-
  based codesets is creation of other extended ASCII implementations.
  This is the way, the Cyrillic ASCII set is implemented.

  We already mentioned ISO 8859-5 standard as the one defining the
  Cyrillic codeset. But as it often happens to the standards, this one
  was developed without taking into account the real practices in the
  former USSR. Therefore, one thing that standard really achieved was
  another degree of confusion. I wouldn't say that ISO 8859-5 is widely
  used anywhere.

  Other standards for Cyrillic include the so-called Alt codeset and
  Microsoft CP1251 codepage. The former one was developed by (who?) for
  MS-DOS quite a while ago. Back then, there was not very buzz yet about
  internetworking, so the intention was to make it as compatible as
  possible with the IBM standard. Therefore the Alt codeset is
  effectively the same IBM codepage, where all specific European
  characters in the upper half were replaced with the Cyrillic ones,
  leaving the pseudographic ones. Therefore, it didn't screw the text
  windowing facilities and provided Cyrillic characters as well.  The
  Alt standard is still alive and extremely popular in MS-DOS.

  Microsoft CP1251 codepage is just an attempt of Microsoft to come up
  with the new standard for Cyrillic codeset in Windows. As far as I
  know, it is not compatible with anything else (not very surprizing,
  huh?)

  And finally there is KOI-8. This one is also quite old, but it was
  designed wisely and nowadays the design points of it look really
  useful.

  Again, it is compatible with ASCII, and the Cyrillic characters are
  located in the upper half. But the main design point of KOI-8 is that
  the Cyrillic characters' positions must correspond to the English
  characters with the same phonetics. Namely, if we set the eighth bit
  of the English character 'a', we'll get the Cyrillic 'a'.  This means
  that, given the Cyrillic text written in KOI-8, we can strip the
  eighth bit of each character and we still get a readable text,
  although written with English characters! This is very important now,
  since there are many mailers on the Internet, that just strip the
  eighth bit silently, being sure that every single soul on the face of
  the Earth speaks English.

  Not surprisingly, KOI-8 quickly became a de-facto standard for
  Cyrillic on the Internet. Andrew A. Chernov did a tremendous amount of
  work to make a standard in this area. He is an author of RFC 1489
  ("Registration of a Cyrillic Character Set").

  These two standards differ only in positions of the cyrillic
  characters in the table (that is in cyrillic character codes).

  The principal difference is that the Alt codeset is used by MS-DOS
  users only, whereas KOI-8 is used in Unix, as well as in MS-DOS
  (though in the latter KOI-8 is much less popular). Since we are doing
  the right thing (namely working in the Unix operating system), we
  shall focuse mostly on KOI-8.

  As for the ISO standard, it is more popular in Europe and the US as a
  standard for Cyrillic. The leader in Russia is definitely KOI-8.

  There are other standards, which are different from ASCII and much
  more flexible. Unicode is most known. However, they are not
  implemented as good as the basic ones in Unix in general and  Linux in
  particular. Therefore, I am not describing them here.

  3.  Text mode setup

  Generally, the text mode setup is the easiest way to show and input
  Cyrillic characters. There is one significant complication, however:
  the text mode fonts and keyboard layout manipulations depend on
  terminal driver implementation. Therefore, there is no portable way to
  achieve the goal across different systems.

  Right now, I describe the way to deal with the Linux console driver.
  Thus, if you have another system, don't expect it to work for you.
  Instead, consult your terminal driver manual. Nevertheless, send me
  any information you find, so I'll be able to include it in further
  versions of this document.

  3.1.  Linux Console

  The Linux console driver is quite a flexible piece of software. It is
  capable of changing fonts as well as keyboard layouts. To achieve it,
  you'll need the kbd package. Both RedHat and Slackware install kbd as
  part of a system.

  The kbd package contains keyboard control utilities as well as a big
  collection of fonts and keyboard layouts.

  Cyrillic setup with kbd usually involves two things:

  1. Screen font setup. This is performed by the setfont program. The
     fonts files are located in /usr/lib/kbd/consolefonts.

     NOTE: Never run the setfont program under X because it will hang
     your system. This is because it works with low-level video card
     calls which X doesn't like.

  2. Load the appropriate keyboard layout with the loadkeys program.

  NOTE: In RedHat 3.0.3, /usr/bin/loadkeys has too restrictive access
  permissions, namely 700 (rwx------). There are no reasons for that,
  since everyone may compile his own copy and execute it (the
  appropriate system calls are not root-only). Thus, just ask your
  sysadmin to set more reasonable permissions for it (for example, 755).

  The following is an excerpt from my cyrload script, which sets up the
  Cyrillic mode for Linux console:

  if [ notset.$DISPLAY != notset. ]; then
      echo "`basename $0`:  cannot run under X"
      exit
  fi

  loadkeys /usr/lib/kbd/keytables/ru.map
  setfont /usr/lib/kbd/consolefonts/Cyr_a8x16
  mapscrn /usr/lib/kbd/consoletrans/koi2alt
  echo -ne "\033(K"              # the magic sequence
  echo "Use the right Ctrl key to switch the mode..."

  Let me explain it a bit. You load the appropriate keyboard mapping.
  Then you load a font corresponding to the Alt codeset. Then, in order
  to be able to display text in KOI8-R correctly, you load a screen
  translation table. What it does is a translation of some characters
  from the upper half of the codeset to the Alt encoding. The word
  'some' is crucial here - not all characters get translated, therefore
  some of them, like IBM pseudographic characters get unmodified to the
  screen and display correctly, since they are compatible with the Alt
  codeset, as opposed to KOI8-R. To ensure this, run mc and pretend you
  are back to MS-DOS 3.3...

  Finally, the magic sequence is important but I have no idea what on
  the Earth it does. I stole/borrowed/learned it from German HOWTO back
  in 1994, when it was like the only national language oriented HOWTO.
  If you have any idea about this magic sequence, please tell me.

  Finally, for those purists, who don't wont to give the Alt codeset a
  chance, I'm attaching yet another version of the script above, using
  native KOI8-R fonts.

  if [ notset.$DISPLAY != notset. ]; then
      echo "`basename $0`:  cannot run under X"
      exit
  fi

  loadkeys /usr/lib/kbd/keytables/ru.map
  setfont /usr/lib/kbd/consolefonts/koi-8x16
  echo "Use the right Ctrl key to switch the mode..."

  However, don't expect nice borders in your text mode-based windowing
  applications.

  Now you probably want to test it. Do the appropriate bash or tcsh
  setup, rerun it, then press the right Control key and make sure you
  are getting the cyrillic characters right. The 'q' key must produce
  russian "short i" character, 'w' generates "ts", etc.

  If you've screwed something up, the very best thing to do is to reset
  to the original (that is, US) settings. Execute the following
  commands:

  loadkeys /usr/lib/kbd/keytables/defkeymap.map
  setfont /usr/lib/kbd/consolefonts/default8x16

  NOTE: unfortunately enough, the console driver is not able to preserve
  it's state (at least easily enough), while running the X Window
  System. Therefore, after you leave the X (or switch from it to a
  console), you have to reload the console russian font.

  3.2.  FreeBSD Console

  I am not using FreeBSD so I couldn't test the following information.
  All data in this section should be treated as just pointers to begin
  with. The FreeBSD project homepage may have some information on the
  subject. Another good source is the relcom.fido.ru.unix newsgroup.
  Also, check the resources listed in section ``''.

  Anyway, this is what Ilya K. Orehov suggests to do in order to make
  FreeBSD console speak Russian:

  1. In /etc/sysconfig add:

     keymap=ru.koi8-r
     keyrate=fast
     # NOTE: '^[' below is a single control character
     keychange="61 ^[[K"
     cursor=destructive
     scrnmap=koi8-r2cp866
     font8x16=cp866b-8x16
     font8x14=cp866-8x14
     font8x8=cp866-8x8

  2. In /etc/csh.login:

     setenv ENABLE_STARTUP_LOCALE
     setenv LANG ru_SU.KOI8-R
     setenv LESSCHARSET latin1

  3. Make analogous changes in /etc/profile

  4.  The X Window System

  Like the console mode, the X environment also requires some setup.
  This involves setting up the input mode and the X fonts. Both are
  being discussed below.

  4.1.  The X fonts.

  First of all, you have to obtain the fonts having the Cyrillic glyphs
  at the appropriate positions.

  If you are using the most recent X (or XFree86) distribution, chances
  are, that you already have such fonts. In the late 1995, the X Window
  System incorporated a set of Cyrillic fonts, created by Cronyx. Ask
  your system administrator, or, if you are the one, check your system,
  namely:

  1. Run 'xlsfonts | grep koi8'. If there are fonts listed, your X
     server is already aware about the fonts.

  2. Otherwise, run

     find -name crox\*.pcf\*

  to find the location of the Cyrillic fonts in the system. You'll have
  to enable those fonts to the X server, as I explain below.

  If you haven't found such fonts installed, you'll have to do it
  yourself.

  There is some ambiguity with the fonts. XFree86 docs claim that the
  russian fonts collection included in the distribution is developed by
  Cronyx. Nevertheless, you may find another set of Cronyx Cyrillic
  fonts on the net (eg. on ftp.kiae.su), known as the xrus package
  (don't confuse it with the xrus program, which is used to setup a
  Cyrillic keyboard layout. Hopefully, tha letter one was renamed to
  xruskb recently). Xrus has fewer fonts than the collection in Xfree86
  (38 vs 68), but the latter one didn't go along with my ``Netscape''
  setup - it gave me some really huge font in the menubar. The xrus
  package doesn't have this problem.

  I would suggest you to download and try both of them. Pick up the one
  which you'll like more. Also, I'm going to creat RPM packages soon for
  both collections and download them both to ftp.redhat.com and to my
  FTP site.

  There are also older stuff, for example the vakufonts package, created
  by Serge Vakulenko, which was the base for the one in the X
  distribution. There are also a number of others. The important point
  is that the fonts' names in the old collection were not strictly
  conforming to the standard. The latter is fine in general, but
  sometimes it may cause various weird errors. For example, I had a bad
  experience with Maple V for Linux, which crashed mysteriously with the
  vakufonts package, but ran smoothly with the "standard" ones.

  So, let's start with the fonts:

  1. Download the appropriate fonts collection. The package for XFree86
     may be found at any FTP site, containing the X distribution, for
     example, directly from the XFree86 FTP site. The xrus package may
     be found on ftp.kiae.su

  2. Now when you have the fonts, you create some directory for them. It
     is generally a bad idea to put new fonts to the already existing
     font directory. So, place them, to, say,
     /usr/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic for a system-wide setup, or just create
     a private directory for personal use.

  3. If the new fonts are in BDF format (*.bdf files), you have to
     compile them. For each font do:

     bdftopcf -o <font>.pcf <font>.bdf

  If your server supports compressed fonts, do it, using the compress
  program:

  compress *.pcf

  Also, if you do want to put the new fonts to an already existing font
  directory. you have to concatenate the old and the new files named
  fonts.alias in the case both of them exist.

  4. Each font directory in the X must contain a list of fonts in it.
     This list is stored in the file fonts.dir. You don't have to create
     this list manually. Instead, do:

     cd <new font directory>
     mkfontdir .

  5. Now you have to make this font directory known to the X server.
     Here, you have a number of options:

    System-wide setup for XFree86. If you are running this version of
     X, then append the new directory to the list of directories in the
     file XF86Config. To find the location of this file, see output of
     startx. Also, see XF86Config(4/5) for details.

    System-wide setup through xinit. Add the new directory to the xinit
     startup file. See xinit(1x) and the next option for details.

    Personal setup. You have a special start-up file for the X -
     ~/.xinitrc (or ~/.Xclients, or ~/.xsession for the RedHat users).
     Add the following commands to it:

     xset +fp <new font directory>
     xset fp rehash

  6. Now restart your X. If you have done everything right, the tests in
     the beginning of the section will be successful. Also, play with
     xfontsel(1x) to make sure you are able to select the cyrillic
     fonts.

  In order to make the X clients use the Cyrillic fonts, you have to set
  up the appropriate X resources. For example, I make the russian font
  the default one in my ~/.Xdefaults:

  *font:         6x13

  Since my cyrillic fonts are first in the font path (see output of

  This just a simple case. If you want to set the appropriate part of
  the X client to a cyrillic font, you have to figure out the name of
  the resource (eg. using editres(1x)) and to specify it either in the
  resource database, or in the command line. Here go some examples:

  $ xterm -font '-cronyx-*-bold-*-*-*-19-*-*-*-*-*-*-*'

  $ xfontsel -xrm '*quitButton.font: -*-times-*-*-*-*-13-*-*-*-*-*-koi8-*'

  xfontsel.

  4.2.  The input translation

  In the newest X releases (X11R61 and higher) there are two "standard"
  input methods: the original one, working through the xmodmap utility,
  and the new one called Xkb (X KeyBoard). The very first thing you have
  to do is to disable the Xkb method! Don't get charmed by it's ability
  to set up a "russian keyboard". It looks like this method is using the
  Cyrillic keysyms defined in keysymdef.h. This file defines keysyms for
  many languages. The only problem is that those definitions have
  nothing to do with the extended ASCII codeset - the one most programs
  are only able to operate with! I hardly know any programs being able
  to grok the keysymdef.h keysyms, different from 8-bit ASCII. However
  our goal is to get the KOI8-R support to work.

  To disable the Xkb support, browse through the Keyboard section of
  your XF86Config file and comment all lines starting with Xkb (case
  doesn't matter). Instead, put the following line:

  XkbDisable

  The xmodmap program.allows customization of codes emitted by various
  characters and their combinations. It sets the things up based on the
  file containing the translation table.

  If you don't want to deal with all these tricks and you prefer having
  a solution right away, either download an appropriate xmodmap table,
  available at many sites dealing with the Cyrillic, for example,
  ftp.kiae.su or ftp.funet.fi. Also, I made the table, described below,
  available at my FTP site.

  More convenient alternative is to install the xruskb package, which
  allows you to configure most of the input translation parameters
  without having to know about xmodmap.

  The following is a simplified description of input customization. If
  you want to do more sophisticated tricks, refer to the xmodmap(1) or,
  even better, wait for the next major X release, which will hopefully
  address the current input problems.

  In our case, the translation table should define two things:

    the character codes emitted by the alphanumeric characters, and

    the mode switching rules

  4.2.1.  The table of characters

  This is basically a sequence of directives which assign the certain
  keysyms to a specified keycodes. The general syntax is the following:

       keycode code = sym1 sym2 sym3 sym4

  where code is the numerical code of the given key on the keyboard
  (refer to the standard table for your system. In my case it is stored
  in the file /usr/lib/X11/etc/xmodmap.std). The syms define the keysyms
  emitted by that key in different conditions. Sym1 is the keysym
  emitted by the key in a regular state, sym2 corresponds the key in
  shifted state (usually when Shift is held down). Sym3 and sym4 define
  the keysyms emitted when the Mode_switch is active for the normal and
  shifted states respectively (group 2, according to the X Protocol
  Specification). In our case, the active Mode_switch corresponds to the
  Cyrillic input mode.

  These should be either hexadecimal codes or the symbolic constants
  from /usr/include/X11/keysymdef.h (without leading "XK_").

  Thus, if we wanted the key corresponding to the Latin 'a' generate the
  Russian 'a' in the alternative mode, we would write the following:

  keycode 38  =  a  A  0xC1 0xE1

  The reader might be curious why I don't use the Cyrillic_a and
  Cyrillic_A constants respectively. The answer is that it didn't work
  for me. I am not very familiar with the guts of the X Window System
  specification, but I've got the following explanation. The symbolic
  constants above have the values 0x6C1 and 0x6E1 respectively. This
  means that in really multi-lingual environment they could be
  successfully used without overlapping with any other character set.
  However the KOI-8 standard is not well suited for such environment.
  Thus, since we want to retain compatible with the past, we will
  violate the rules of multi-lingual support in the X Window System.

  The following is a table for the most popular russian JCUKEN keyboard
  layout (these tables are derived from the ones in the vakufonts
  package):

  keysym  4             = 4               dollar          4       quotedbl
  keysym  5             = 5               percent         5       colon
  keysym  6             = 6               asciicircum     6       comma
  keysym  7             = 7               ampersand       7       period
  keysym  q             = q               Q               0xCA    0xEA
  keysym  w             = w               W               0xC3    0xE3
  keysym  e             = e               E               0xD5    0xF5
  keysym  r             = r               R               0xCB    0xEB
  keysym  t             = t               T               0xC5    0xE5
  keysym  y             = y               Y               0xCE    0xEE
  keysym  u             = u               U               0xC7    0xE7
  keysym  i             = i               I               0xDB    0xFB
  keysym  o             = o               O               0xDD    0xFD
  keysym  p             = p               P               0xDA    0xFA
  keysym  bracketleft   = bracketleft     braceleft       0xC8    0xE8
  keysym  bracketright  = bracketright    braceright      0xDF    0xFF
  keysym  a             = a               A               0xC6    0xE6
  keysym  s             = s               S               0xD9    0xF9
  keysym  d             = d               D               0xD7    0xF7
  keysym  f             = f               F               0xC1    0xE1
  keysym  g             = g               G               0xD0    0xF0
  keysym  h             = h               H               0xD2    0xF2
  keysym  j             = j               J               0xCF    0xEF
  keysym  k             = k               K               0xCC    0xEC
  keysym  l             = l               L               0xC4    0xE4
  keysym  semicolon     = semicolon       colon           0xD6    0xF6
  keysym  apostrophe    = apostrophe      quotedbl        0xDC    0xFC
  keysym  grave         = grave           asciitilde      0xA3    0xB3
  keysym  z             = z               Z               0xD1    0xF1
  keysym  x             = x               X               0xDE    0xFE
  keysym  c             = c               C               0xD3    0xF3
  keysym  v             = v               V               0xCD    0xED
  keysym  b             = b               B               0xC9    0xE9
  keysym  n             = n               N               0xD4    0xF4
  keysym  m             = m               M               0xD8    0xF8
  keysym  comma         = comma           less            0xC2    0xE2
  keysym  period        = period          greater         0xC0    0xE0

  Also, for those using the russian YAWERTY layout, I include the
  following table:

  keysym  q             = q               Q               0xD1    0xF1
  keysym  w             = w               W               0xD7    0xF7
  keysym  e             = e               E               0xC5    0xE5
  keysym  r             = r               R               0xD2    0xF2
  keysym  t             = t               T               0xD4    0xF4
  keysym  y             = y               Y               0xD9    0xF9
  keysym  u             = u               U               0xD5    0xF5
  keysym  i             = i               I               0xC9    0xE9
  keysym  o             = o               O               0xCF    0xEF
  keysym  p             = p               P               0xD0    0xF0
  keysym  bracketleft   = bracketleft     braceleft       0xDB    0xFB
  keysym  bracketright  = bracketright    braceright      0xDD    0xFD
  keysym  a             = a               A               0xC1    0xE1
  keysym  s             = s               S               0xD3    0xF3
  keysym  d             = d               D               0xC4    0xE4
  keysym  f             = f               F               0xC6    0xE6
  keysym  g             = g               G               0xC7    0xE7
  keysym  h             = h               H               0xC8    0xE8
  keysym  j             = j               J               0xCA    0xEA
  keysym  k             = k               K               0xCB    0xEB
  keysym  l             = l               L               0xCC    0xEC
  keysym  z             = z               Z               0xDA    0xFA
  keysym  x             = x               X               0xD8    0xF8
  keysym  c             = c               C               0xC3    0xE3
  keysym  v             = v               V               0xD6    0xF6
  keysym  b             = b               B               0xC2    0xE2
  keysym  n             = n               N               0xCE    0xEE
  keysym  m             = m               M               0xCD    0xED
  keysym  backslash     = backslash       bar             0xDC    0xFC
  keysym  grave         = grave           asciitilde      0xC0    0xE0
  keysym  equal         = equal           plus            0xDE    0xFE
  keysym  3             = 3               numbersign      3       0xDF
  keysym  4             = 4               dollar          4       0xFF

  4.2.2.  The mode switching rules

  This is the trickiest part of the X Cyrillic setup. You should define
  the conditions in which the current mode is switched between the
  regular and the Cyrillic one. Thanks to the wise X input translation
  design, it is non-portable, inflexible, incomplete, and, generally
  speaking, it sucks. No surprise, people switch to MS Windows.

  Currently, there is a lot of activity in development of XFree86 in
  general and X input model in particular. The result is, you
  configuration must work with one XFree version and not work with a
  different one. Even worse, sometimes things differ accross different
  servers in the same distribution.

  First of all, I'll describe my setup, which works for me now. I am
  running XFree86 3.3 SVGA server. In my XF86Config file (in the RedHat
  distribution it is located in /etc/X11) I have the following
  directives in the "Keyboard" section:

     LeftAlt         Meta
     RightAlt        ModeShift
     ScrollLock      ModeLock
     RightCtl        Control

  NOTE: The way to set up the mode switching rules via XF86Config file
  is XFree86-specific. It won't work for other X versions.

  Now, I load the table described in the last section and stored in some
  file using the xmodmap(1X) utility:

  xmodmap  <table_file>

  Now I am able to shift to the Cyrillic input mode using right Alt key
  and to switch to Cyrillic and back using ScrollLock. You'll be
  surprised to learn that neither CapsLock nor Control keys work in the
  Cyrillic input mode. Well, say it again: the X input model sucks!

  The rest of this section is a concise description of generic X input
  translation configuration. It used to work for older XFree86 releases
  but exposes various problems now. I left it here, so that the most
  curious of you would be able to try some of this stuff and make use of
  it.

  What you should do is:

    Assign the Mode_switch keysym to some key, and

    Add Mode_switch to some spare modifier map

  Now the key to which the ModeShift is assigned will act as a mode
  switch. This means that while it is held down, the keyboard is in
  alternative mode.

  Moreover, if you add a lockable key to that modifier's map, this key
  will lock the alternative mode.

  Note: There are some problems however. Serge Vakulenko
  (vak@cronyx.com) pointed out that the different X Server
  implementations may have different rules of assignments the mode
  switches (like, for example, some servers restrict the set of the keys
  which may work in toggle mode to, say, CapsLock, NumLock, and
  ScrollLock). Hopefully, this is a subject to change in the next
  release of the X Window System. For more details, see the X Protocol
  specification.

  Unfortunately, I didn't manage to make the CapsLock key have the same
  functionality in the alternative mode, namely, to lock the upper case.
  It seems to me, it is impossible to do it, because of the idiotic X
  input translation design. If I am wrong, please correct me.

  Let's see an example. Suppose, one wants to use the right Alt as a
  mode switch and the ScrollLock as as a mode lock. First of all, one
  should check the default modifiers' map. This is accomplished by
  running the xmodmap without arguments:

  $ xmodmap

  xmodmap:  up to 2 keys per modifier, (keycodes in parentheses):

  shift       Shift_L (0x32),  Shift_R (0x3e)
  lock        Caps_Lock (0x42)
  control     Control_L (0x25)
  mod1        Alt_L (0x40),  Alt_R (0x71)
  mod2        Num_Lock (0x4d)
  mod3
  mod4
  mod5

  According to the above, the plan of attack is the following:

  1. remove the Alt_R key from the mod1 map

  2. assign the Mode_switch keysym to the Alt_R key

  3. assign the Scroll_Lock keysym to the keycode 78 (the code of the
     actual ScrollLock)

  4. add the Mode_switch to the spare (mod3) map, and

  5. add the Scroll_Lock keysym to the mod3 map

  Thus, here is the solution:

  remove mod1 = Alt_R
  keysym Alt_R = Mode_switch
  keycode 78 = Scroll_Lock
  add mod3 = Mode_switch
  add mod3 = Scroll_Lock

  If you use the latter solution, you may combine both the table and the
  mode directives in your ~/.Xmodmap file.

  Such files are generally supplied with the various X Cyrillic stuff
  packages. The good example is the tables in the old package by Serge
  Vakulenko described above.

  Once you have such file containing the table, you should run the
  command:

       xmodmap filename

  system-wide file is /usr/lib/X11/xinit/xinitrc; the personal one is
  either ~/.xinitrc, or ~/.Xclients, or ~/.xsession, depending on what
  you have.

  NOTE: If xmodmap complains on your table, try to load the default
  table first. The default one is usually located in
  /usr/lib/X11/etc/xmodmap.std.

  5.  Cyrillic support in TeX and LaTeX

  In this section I'll describe several ways to make TeX and LaTeX
  typeset Cyrillic texts. There are several ways, which differ in setup
  sophistication and usage convenience. For example, one possibility is
  to start without any preliminary setup and use the Washington AMSTeX
  Cyrillic fonts. On the other hand, you may install a LaTeX package,
  providing a very high degree of Cyrillic setup. I have an experience
  with two such packages. One is the cmcyralt package by Vadim V.
  Zhytnikov (vvzhy@phy.ncu.edu.tw) and Alexander Harin
  (harin@lourie.und.ac.za), and the other one is the LH package by the
  CyrTUG group with styles and hyphenation for LaTeX2e by Sergei O.
  Naoumov (serge@astro.unc.edu). I'll describe both.

  Note, that there are two versions of LaTeX available - 2.09 is the old
  one, while 2e is a new pre-3.0 release. If you are using LaTeX 2.09,
  then switch quickly to the 2e. The latter retains compatibility with
  the old one, but has much more features. Hopefully, version 3 will be
  released soon. I describe a LaTeX 2e setup.

  Also, both of these packages require the Cyrillic text to be typeset
  using the Alt codeset, not KOI-8! This is caused by historical
  reasons, since the creators of these packages used to work with EmTeX
  - the MS-DOG version of TeX (they didn't know about Linux yet :-).
  Switching to the KOI-8 requires some effort and is being expected to
  be done soon. So far, use some utility to convert your russian text
  from KOI-8 to Alt. See section ``''.

  5.1.  Using the Washington Cyrillic

  This package was created for the American Mathematic Society to
  provide documents with Russian references. Therefore, the authors were
  not very careful and the fonts look quite clumsy. This package is
  usually referred to as a "really bad cyrillic package for TeX".

  Nevertheless, we'll discuss it, because it is very easy to use and
  doesn't require any setup - this collection is supplied with most of
  TeX distributions.

  Of course, you won't be able to use such luxury as automatic
  hyphenation, but anyway...

  1. Prepend your document with the following directives:

  \input cyracc.def
  \font\tencyr=wncyr10
  \def\cyr{\tencyr\cyracc}

  2. Now to type a cyrillic letter, you enter

  \cyr

  and use a corresponding latin letter or a TeX command. Thus, the lower
  case of the Russian alphabet is expressed by the following codes:

  a b v g d e \"e zh z i {\u i} k l m n o p r s t u f kh c ch sh shch
  {\cprime} y {\cdprime} \`e yu ya

  It is extremely inconvenient to convert your Russian texts to such
  encoding, but you can automate the process. The translit program
  (section ``'') supports a TeX output option.

  5.2.  KOI-8 package for teTeX

  There is some new teTeX-rus package. It is reported to support KOI-8
  character set and have all basic stuff required for TeX and LaTeX. I
  personally haven't tried it yes, although I heard about it's
  successfull usage.

  NOTE: This package requires you to reconfigure and rebuild some parts
  of your teTeX package (for example the precompiled LaTeX macros).
  Unless you know what you are doing, you shouldn't try it without
  necessary care. Otherwise, you may be better off by borrowing the
  precompiled parts fron somebody on the net

  5.3.  Using the cmcyralt package for LaTeX

  The cmcyralt package can be found on any CTAN (Comprehensive TeX
  Archive Network) site like ftp.dante.de. You should obtain two pieces:
  the fonts collection from fonts/cmcyralt and the styles and
  hyphenation rules from macros/latex/contrib/others/cmcyralt.

  Note: Make sure you have the Sauter package installed, since cmcyralt
  requires some fonts from it. You can get this package from CTAN site
  as well.

  Now you should do the following:

  1. Put the new fonts to the TeX fonts tree. On my system (Slackware
     2.2) I created a cmcyralt directory in the
     /usr/lib/texmf/fonts/cm/. Create the src, tfm, and vf
     subdirectories in it. Put there .mf, .tfm, and vf files
     respectively.

  2. Put the font driver files (*.fd) from the styles archive to the
     appropriate place (in my case it was /usr/lib/texmf/tex/latex/fd).

  3. Put the style files (*.sty) to the appropriate LaTeX styles
     directory (in my case /usr/lib/texmf/tex/latex/sty).

  Now the hyphenation setup. This requires to remake the LaTeX base
  file.

  1. The file hyphen.cfg contains the directives for both English and
     Russian hyphenation. Extract the one for Russian and place it to
     the LaTeX hyphenation config file lthyphen.ltx. In my case, that
     file was in /usr/lib/texmf/tex/latex/latex-base.

  2. Put the rhyphen.tex to the same directory. It is needed for making
     the new base file. Later, you can remove it.

  3. Do 'make' in that directory. Don't for get to make a link from
     Makefile to Makefile.unx. During the make process check the output.
     There should be a message:

     Loading hyphenation patterns for Russian.

  If everything goes OK, you will get the new latex.fmt in that direc
  tory. Put it to the appropriate place, where the previous one was
  (like /usr/lib/texmf/ini/). Don't forget to save the previous one!.

  This is it. The installation is complete. Try processing the examples
  found in the styles archive. If you are to create the PostScript files
  without any problems, then everything is OK. Now, to use Cyrillic in
  LaTeX, prepend your document with the following directive:

  \usepackage{cmcyralt}

  For more details, see the README file in the cmcyralt styles archive.

  Note: if you do have problems with the examples, provided you have
  installed the things right, then probably your TeX system hasn't been
  installed correctly. For example, during my first try, every attempt
  to create the .pk files for the russian fonts failed (MakeTeXPK
  stage). A substantial investigation discovered some implicit conflict
  between the localfont and ljfour METAFONT configurations. It used to
  work before, but kept crashing after the cmcyralt installation.
  Contact your local TeX guru - TeX is very (sometimes too much)
  complicated to reconfigure it without any prior knowledge.

  5.4.  Using the CyrTUG package

  You can obtain the CyrTUG package from the SunSite archive. Get the
  files CyrTUGfonts.tar.gz, CyrTUGmacro.tar.gz, and hyphen.tar.Z.

  The process of installation doesn't differ from too much the previous
  one.

  6.  Cyrillic in PostScript

  Experts say PostScript is easy. I cannot judge - I've got too many
  things to learn to spare some time to learn PostScript. So I'll try to
  use my sad experience with it. I'll appreciate any feedback from you
  guys who know more on the subject than I do (approx. 99% of the Earth
  population).

  Basically, in order to print a Cyrillic text using PostScript, you
  have to make sure about the following things:

    Cyrillic font is loaded or included in the document.

    Cyrillic text is included in the document.

    Cyrillic text uses the appropriate character codes which correspond
     to the font's requirements.

    An appropriate font is selected in order to print Cyrillic text.

  There is no solution general enough to be recommended as an ultimate
  treatment. I'll try to outline various ways to cope with different
  problems related to the subject.

  One way to address Cyrillic setup problems generally enough is to use
  Ghostscript. Ghostscript (or just gs in the newspeak) is a free (well
  quasi-free) PostScript interpreter. It has many advantages; among
  them:

    Ability to run on many platforms (various Unices, Windows etc)

    Support for a wide number of non-PostScript printers

    Good degree of configurability

  What is important in our particular case, is that once Ghostscript is
  set up, we can do all printing through it, thus eliminating extra
  setup for other PostScript devices (for example HP LaserJet IV)

  6.1.  Adding Cyrillic fonts to Ghostscript

  This is important, since you probably don't want to put a
  responsibility to other programs to insert Cyrillic fonts in the
  PostScript output. Instead, you add them to gs and just make the
  programs generate Cyrillic output compatible with the fonts.

  To add a new font (in pfa or pfb form) in gs, you have to:

  1. Put it in the gs fonts directory (ie.  /usr/lib/ghostscript/fonts

  2. Add the appropriate names and aliases for the font in the Fontmap
     file in the gs directory.

  Recently a decent set of Cyrillic fonts for GhostScript appeared.  It
  is located in ftp.kapella.gpi.ru. This one even has a necessary part
  to add to the Fontmap file. You have to download the contents of the
  /pub/cyrillic/psfonts directory. The README file describes the
  necessary details.

  7.  Print setup

  Printing is always tricky. There are different printers from different
  vendors with different facilities. Even for a native printing there is
  no uniform solution (this applies not only to UNIX, but to other
  operating systems as well.

  Printers have different control languages and often they have very
  different views on foreign language support.  The good news is that on
  control language seems to be recognized as a de-facto standard for
  print job description - it is a PostScript language developed by Adobe
  Corporation.

  Another problem is a variety of requirements to the print services.
  For example, sometimes you want just to print a piece if C program,
  containing comments in Russian, so you don't need any pretty-printing
  - just a raw ASCII output in a single font. Another time, when you
  design a postcard for your girlfriend, you'll probably need to typeset
  some document with different fonts etc. This will definitely require
  more effort to setup Cyrillic support.

  To accomplish the former task you just have to make your printer
  understand one Cyrillic font and (maybe) install some filter program
  to generate data in appropriate format. To accomplish the latter one,
  you have to teach your printer different fonts and have a special
  software.

  There is also something in the middle, when you get a program which
  knows how to generate both the fonts and the appropriate printer
  input, so you can say do some aource code pretty-printing without
  sophisticated word processing systems.

  All these options will be more or less covered below.

  7.1.  Pre-loading Cyrillic fonts into a non-PostScript printer

  If you have a good old dot matrix printer and all you need is to print
  a raw KOI-8 text, try the following:

  1. Find a proper KOI-8 font for your printer. Check out the MS-DOSish
     stuff on the Internet (for example the SimTel archive
     <ftp://ftp.simtel.net>).

  2. Learn from the manual, how to load such font into your printer and,
     probably, write a simple program doing that.

  3. Run this program from the appropriate rc file at a boot time.

  Thus, having Cyrillic characters in the upper part of the printer's
  character set will allow you to print you texts in Russian without any
  hussle.

  Alternatively to the KOI-8 fonts you may try to use the Alt font.
  There are two reasons for that:

    It may be probably much easier to find an Alt font, since those
     were very widespread in the MS-DOS culture.

    Having a proper Alt font will allow you to print pseudo-graphic
     characters as well.

  However in this case, you'll have to convert your texts from KOI-8 to
  Alt before sending them to a printer. This is quite easy, since there
  are a lot of programs doing that (see ``translit'' for example), so
  you just have to call such program properly in the if field in
  /etc/printcap file. For example, with the translit program you may
  specify:

  if=/usr/bin/translit -t koi8-alt.rus

  See printcap(5) for details.

  7.2.  Printing with different fonts

  One great way to cope with different printers and fonts is to use
  ``TeX''. TeX drivers handle all details, so once you make TeX
  understand Cyrillic fonts, you are done.

  Another possibility is to use PostScript. I decided to devote an
  entire ``chapter'' to the subject, since it is not simple.

  Finally, there are other word processors, which have printer drivers.
  I never tried anything apart from TeX, so I cannot suggest anything.

  7.3.  Converting text to TeX

  If all you need is just to print an ASCII text without any additional
  word processing, you may try to use some programs, which would convert
  your Cyrillic text to a ready-to-process TeX file. One of the best
  programs for such purposes is ``translit''. In this case, you don't
  even have to bother about installing the Cyrillic fonts for TeX, since
  translit uses a Washington Cyrillic package, which is included in most
  TeX distributions (or am I wrong?)

  7.4.  Text to PostScript converters

  Sometimes you have just a plain ASCII KOI-8 text and you want to print
  it just to get it on the paper. One of the easiest ways to achieve
  that is to use special programs converting text to PostScript.

  There are a number of programs doing such conversion. I personally
  prefer a2ps. Originally developed as a simple text-to-PostScript
  converter it became a big and highly configurable program with many
  options and allows you to manage various page layouts, syntax
  highlighting etc. Another tool (now available as a part of the GNU
  project) is enscript.

  The main problem with such programs is that they know nothing about
  Cyrillic fonts. Right now I am investigating a possibility of
  including Cyrillic fonts in them in order to understand Cyrillic. Stay
  in touch.

  Nevertheless all the blah-blah above would be pointless without any
  real advice. So, there we go.

  As usual, GNU is the winner. The GNU enscript program is designed for
  converting text to PostScript and has perfect non-ASCII codeset
  support. It doesn't have Cyrillic PostScript fonts, but it is very
  easy to get them, as will be explained below (thanks to Michael Van
  Canneyt):

  1. Install the newest enscript. As of now, the most recent release is
     1.5. You may either get the one from the GNU FTP archive, or take
     an RPM package from the Redhat site.

  2. Now, if you are a lucky RedHat Linux user, download and install
     Cyrillic Textbook font
     <ftp://ftp.redhat.com/pub/contrib/i386/enscript-fonts-
     koi8-1.0-1.i386.rpm>.

  3. If you don't use RPM, download a file textbook.tar.gz from the
     Cyrillic Software collection on sunsite.unc.edu
     <ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/academic/russian-studies/Software/>.
     Extract it to a directory, where enscript fonts are located
     (usually /usr/share/enscript). Now change to that directory and run
     the following command:

         mkafmmap *.afm

  4. The setup is finished. Try to print some text in KOI8-R Cyrillic
     with the following command:

         enscript --font=Textbook8 --encoding=koi8 some.file

  If you don't want a really quick and dirty solution and you don't care
  about the output quality and all you need is just Cyrillic on the
  paper, try the rtxt2ps package. It is a very simple no-frills text-to-
  PostScript conversion program. The output quality is not very good
  (or, to be honest, just bad) but it does it's job.

  Another resort is a hacked version of a2ps. This one is quite old, so
  don't expect all new version's bells and whistles in it. But it prints
  Cyrillic text and the quality is sufficiently better than that of
  rtxt2ps.  However, I experienced various kinds of problems with it -
  like I couldn't print more than two pages (???).

  8.  Miscellaneous utilities setup

  Generally, to set the certain utility up to handle the Cyrillic
  requires just to allow the 8 bit input. In some cases it is required
  to tell the application to show the extended ASCII characters in their
  "native" form.

  8.1.  bash

  Three variables should be set on order to make bash understand the
  8-bit characters. The best place is ~/.inputrc file. The following
  should be set:

  set meta-flag on
  set convert-meta off
  set output-meta on

  8.2.  csh/tcsh

  The following should be set in .cshrc:

  setenv LC_CTYPE iso_8859_5
  stty pass8

  If you don't have the POSIX stty (impossible for Linux), then replace
  the last call to the following:

  stty -istrip cs8

  8.3.  emacs

  The minimal cyrillic support in emacs is done by adding the following
  calls to one's .emacs (provided that the Cyrillic character set
  support is installed for console or X respectively):

  (standard-display-european t)

  (set-input-mode (car (current-input-mode))
     (nth 1 (current-input-mode))
     0)

  This allows the user to view and input documents in Russian.

  However, such mode is not of a big convenience because emacs doesn't
  recognize the usual keyboard commands while set in Cyrillic input
  mode. There are a number of packages which use the different approach.
  They don't rely on the input mode stuff established by the environment
  (either X or console. Instead, they allow the user to switch the input
  mode by the special emacs command and emacs itself is responsible for
  re-mapping the character set. The author took a chance to look at
  three of them. The russian.el package by Valery Alexeev
  (ava@math.jhu.edu) allows the user to switch between cyrillic and
  regular input mode and to translate the contents of a buffer from one
  Cyrillic coding standard to another (which is especially useful while
  reading the texts imported from MS-DOG).

  The only inconvenience is that emacs is still treating the russian
  characters as special ones, so it doesn't recognize russian words'
  bounds and case changes. To fix it, you have to modify the syntax and
  case tables of emacs:

  ;; there is a garbage in the variables below, since SGML doesn't like
  ;; cyrillic characters. You have to put the uppercase and lowercase
  ;; parts of the Russian alphabet respectively (see the actual files)

  (setq *russian-abc-ucase* "*** SGML SUCKS ***")
  (setq *russian-abc-lcase* "*** SGML SUCKS ***")

  (let ((i 0)
        (len (length *russian-abc-ucase*)))

       (while (< i len)
         (modify-syntax-entry (elt *russian-abc-ucase* i) "w  ")
         (modify-syntax-entry (elt *russian-abc-lcase* i) "w  ")
         (set-case-syntax-pair (elt *russian-abc-ucase* i)
                               (elt *russian-abc-lcase* i)
                               (standard-case-table))
         (setq i (+ i 1))))

  For this purpose I created a rusup.el file which does this, as well as
  a couple handy functions. You have to load it in your ~/.emacs.

  Another alternative is the package remap which tries to make such
  support more generic. This package is written by Per Abrahamsen
  (abraham@iesd.auc.dk) and is accessible at ftp.iesd.auc.dk.

  As for the author's opinion, I would suggest to start using the
  russian.el package because it is very easy to setup and use.

  8.4.  ispell

  There is an rspell add-on created by Neal Dalton (nrd@cray.com) for
  the GNU ispell package, but I experienced some problems making it work
  right away. Try it - maybe you will be luckier.

  9.  joe

  Try the -asis option.

  9.1.  ksh

  As for the public domain ksh implementation - pdksh 5.1.3, you can
  input 8 bit characters only in vi input mode. Use:

  set -o vi

  9.2.  less

  So far, less doesn't support the KOI-8 character set, but the
  following environment variable will do the job:

  LESSCHARSET=latin1

  9.3.  lynx

  As of version 2.6, you may select the appropriate value for the
  display Character set opetion.

  9.4.  mc (The Midnight Commander)

  To display Cyrillic text correctly, select the full 8 bits item in the
  Options/Display menu.

  If your problem is the ugly windows' borders, consult the ``''
  section.

  As an off-topic, if you want to make mc use color in an Xterm window,
  set the variable COLORTERM:

  COLORTERM= ; export COLORTERM

  9.5.  Netscape navigator

  Make sure you are using Netscape version higher than 3. If your
  Netscape is older, download a new one from www.netscape.com.

  9.5.1.  Basic setup

  To be able to see Cyrillic text in most parts of the HTML document, do
  the following:

    In menu Options/Document Encoding select Cyrillic(KOI-8).

    In menu Options/General Preferences/Fonts select Cyrillic (KOI-8)
     encoding, Times(Cronyx) as a proportional font and Courier(Cronyx)
     as a fixed one.

    save options.

  NOTE: This setup will work with most parts of the document. However,
  you won't be able to display Cyrillic text in the window header, menus
  and some controls. To fix these problems, do an

  9.5.2.  Advanced setup

  Andrew A. Chernov is the one, who knows more than others about KOI-8
  in general and netscape in particular. Visit his excellent KOI-8 page
  and download a patch for Netscape resource file, making Netscape speak
  Russian as much as it is able to.

  9.6.  pine

  Set the following directive in ~/.pinerc for personal configuration,
  or in /usr/lib/pine.conf for a global one:

  character-set=ISO-8859-5

  9.7.  rlogin

  Make sure that the shell on the destination site is properly set up.
  Then, if your rlogin doesn't work by default, use 'rlogin -8'.

  9.8.  sendmail (aka "The Doom of a Sysadmin")

  As of version 8, sendmail handles 8-bit data correctly by default. If
  it doesn't do it for you, check the EightBitMode option and option 7
  given to mailers in your /etc/sendmail.cf. See "Sendmail. Operation
  and Installation Guide" for details.

  9.9.  zsh

  Use the same way as with csh (see section ``csh''). The startup files
  in this case are .zshrc or /etc/zshrc.

  10.  Useful Tools

  10.1.  Conversion Utilities

  There are a number of programs able to convert from KOI-8 to Alt and
  back. Look at SovInformBureau or ftp.funet.fi for a list of handy
  little utilities. You can even use the special mode for emacs (see
  section ``Emacs'').

  However, I would especially recommend a translit package. It supports
  many popular codesets and is even able to produce a *TeX files (see
  section ``'') from text in Russian. Also, RedHat users will enjoy an
  RPM package for translit.

  10.2.  Programmer's tools

  So far, I explained the ways to make the programs accept and display
  the Cyrillic codeset. However the full localization of the system
  comprises much more. All discussed above is not enough. The system
  should be friendly for a user who doesn't necessarily speak English.
  In my own opinion, it is not a big deal to become familiar with
  English at the level of the programs' messages. However, it is not
  quite fair to require it.

  Thus, the next level of localization requires the programs to be
  customizable to the requirements of different languages and data
  representation habits.

  Before, that was done by developing some abstraction of the messages
  to output from the program's code. Now, such mechanism is (more or
  less) standardized. And, of course, there are free implementations of
  it!

  The good news is that GNU finally adopted the way of making the
  internationalized applications. Ulrich Drepper (drepper@ipd.info.uni-
  karlsruhe.de) developed a package gettext. This package is available
  at all GNU sites like prep.ai.mit.edu. It allows you to develop
  programs in the way that you can easily make them support more
  languages. I don't intend to describe the programming techniques,
  especially because the gettext package is delivered with excellent
  manual.

  So, if you are developing programs which output messages (have you
  ever developed any program which didn't?), then don't be lazy to put a
  little (yes, really little) effort to make your program locale-aware.

  Request for collaboration: If you want to learn the gettext package
  and to contribute to the GNU project simultaneously; or even if you
  just want to contribute, then you can do it! GNU goes international,
  so all the utilities are being made locale-aware. The problem is to
  translate the messages from English to Russian (and other languages if
  you'd like). Basically, what one has to do is to get the special .po
  file consisting of the English messages for a certain utility and to
  append each message with it's equivalent in Russian. Ultimately, this
  will make the system speak Russian if the user wants it! For more
  details and further directions contact Ulrich Drepper
  (drepper@ipd.info.uni-karlsruhe.de).

  11.  Summary of the various useful resources

  a2ps homepage <http://www-inf.enst.fr/~demaille/a2ps.html>

  A. Chernov's KOI-8 page <http://www.nagual.ru/~ache/koi8.html>

  General Linux Information <http://sunsite.unc.edu/mdw/linux.html>

  My collection of stuff related to the Cyrillic setup
  <ftp://netvision.net.il/pub/home/b/belikoff/cyrillic/>

  Collection of Cyrillic stuff on ftp.kiae.su
  <ftp://ftp.kiae.su/cyrillic/>

  Collection of Cyrillic stuff on ftp.relcom.ru
  <ftp://ftp.relcom.ru/cyrillic/>

  Collection of cyrilization software
  <ftp://ftp.funet.fi/pub/culture/russian/comp/>

  Cronyx <http://www.cronyx.ru> - the creators of Cyrillic fonts for the
  X Window System.

  Cyrillic fonts for Ghostscript
  <ftp://ftp.kapella.gpi.ru/pub/cyrillic/psfonts>Cyrillic fonts for X
  <ftp://ftp.kiae.su/cyrillic/x11/fonts/xrus-2.1.1-src.tgz>

  Ghostscript <http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/index.html>

  GNU nenscript <ftp://prep.ai.mit.edu/pub/gnu>

  Information on Cyrillic Software
  <http://sunsite.oit.unc.edu/sergei/Software/Software.html>

  relcom.fido.ru.unix <news:relcom.fido.ru.unix> newsgoup.

  RFC 1489 <file://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1489.txt>

  rspell for GNU ispell <ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/academic/russian-
  studies/Software/rspell.tar.gz>

  SovInformBureau <http://www.siber.com/sib/russify/>

  teTeX russification package <ftp://xray.sai.msu.su/pub/outgoing/teTeX-
  rus/>

  The kbd package for Linux
  <ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/Keyboards/>

  The remap package for Emacs <ftp://ftp.iesd.auc.dk/>

  The rtxt2ps and hacked a2ps packages
  <http://www.siber.com/sib/russify/converters/>

  The translit package
  <ftp://ftp.osc.edu/pub/russian/translit/translit.tar.Z>

  The xruskb package <ftp://ftp.relcom.ru/x11/cyrillic/>

  Useful Cyrillic packages <ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/academic/russian-
  studies/Software>

  X fonts collections <ftp://ftp.switch.ch/mirror/linux/X11/fonts/>

  XFree86 FTP site <http://www.xfree86.org>

